A proclamation to reform the system of land tenure in Eritrea, to determine the manner of expropriating land for purposes of development and national reconstruction, and to determine the powers and duties of the land commission.

The mining potential of the small eastern African country, Eritrea, is unexploited.  In 2009, the Eritrean government granted eight new exploration licences to foreign mining companies.  Mining in Eritrea has attracted the interest of more than 14 mining and exploration firms from Australia, Bermuda, Canada,China, Libya, the United Arab Emirates and the UK.  The Bisha Mine (a unique gold, copper and zinc mine) in Eritrea is the country's flagship project and is being run by Canada’s Nevsun Resources Ltd with a forty percent stake held by the Government of Eritrea.

Artisanal gold mining in Eritrea can be traced back to ancient times: even today it is commonly practiced in western Eritrea.  Modern mining however only started during the Italian rule in the late twenties of the last century, when the Italian colonisers developed more than twenty small gold mines. The development of the mining industry was interrupted at an early stage,at the end of the 1940s.  Since then, the political and security conditions necessary for the development of the industry did not prevail in Eritrea, until the country’s independence in 1991.

The involvement of Eritrean diaspora communities in conflict and post-conflict reconstruction in Eritrea dates back to the times of the struggle for independence. The transnational ties between the former liberation fronts and the Eritrean state have been very close ever since. This paper describes the modes and potential of diaspora engagement in Eritrea, focussing especially on recent developments in Eritrean diaspora communities worldwide since 2000. It seeks to describe the specific political, social and economic conditions in Eritrea that provide a framework for the engagement of exiled communities as well as Eritrean policies, which target specifically Eritrean communities abroad. It further aims to describe the various patterns of diaspora engagement in Eritrea, differentiating between individual and organised diaspora activities by tentatively taking into account the potential impacts of these activities on Eritrean society and policies.

Eritrea has taken notable steps forward over the past two decades, including significant progress on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), especially those related to health.  This was demonstrated during a recent side event at the UN general assembly supported by the UN.  Though challenges still exist, the country is working hard to improve its national capacity in all areas. The achievements made towards advancing the situation of women and enhancing the wellbeing of the most vulnerable Eritreans, especially those in the rural areas, are notable and should be appreciated.

WHEREAS, the exploitation of Petroleum resources of the country will greatly contribute to the economic growth and welfare of the Eritrean nation;

WHEREAS, Petroleum Operations should be carried out in accordance with modern technology and sound principles of resource conservation and should provide a better knowledge of the Petroleum potential of the country;

WHEREAS, it is necessary to develop domestic expertise and Petroleum infrastructure by fostering the acquisition of Petroleum technology;

WHEREAS, to achieve these ends, it is essential to promulgate a special law on Petroleum Operations;

NOW, THEREFORE, the Government of Eritrea proclaims as follows:

On 30 June 2016, the majority of the Dutch parliament adopted a resolution in which the Minister of Foreign Affairs was asked to research the Recovery and Rehabilitation Tax on members of the Eritrean diaspora in Europe (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, 2016).  In response, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs commissioned the Amsterdam-based research bureau DSP-groep to conduct a study on the levying and collection of the tax in seven European countries.

This research was conducted between January and June 2017. The research team consisted of Dr Wendy Buysse and Paul van Soomeren (DSP-groep) and Prof. Dr Mirjam van Reisen (Tilburg University), assisted by Lena Reim and a team of interviewers from Europe External Policy Advisors (EEPA).  This report is the resultof this research.

This article examines the impact of UN‐imposed sanctions on the stability of the Eritrean regime, using diaspora behavior as an explanatory variable of crucial importance. It explores the transnational nature of Eritrean society, which is characterized by long‐distance nationalism, and examines the history and structure of the Eritrean diaspora as well as its transformation since the political crisis of 2001. The paper argues that the government and its supporters among the diaspora, as well as regime opponents, have all instrumentalized the sanctions for their own specific purposes. While the former use the sanctions to createa “rally around the flag” effect and for fundraising purposes, the latter campaign against the 2 percent diaspora tax levied by the government because it may be used for illicit purposes in breach of the sanctions regime. However, due to the opposition’s disunity and failure to organize joint campaigns, its efforts have so far failed to decisively contribute to the demise of Eritrea’s crumbling rebel regime. Meanwhile financial flows to both the government’s coffers and to private individuals continue to play a stabilizing role. Nevertheless, unsuccessful domestic policies, the mass exodus resulting from the militarization of the entire society and an isolationist foreign policy are all contributing to the growing weakness of the regime, and with it the State of Eritrea.

This article examines the impact of UN-imposed sanctions on the stability of the Eritrean regime, with a focus on the reaction of the diaspora. It explores the transnational nature of Eritrean society and examines the history and structure of the Eritrean diaspora as well as its transformation since the political crisis of 2001. The article demonstrates that the government,as well as both its supporters and its opponents in the diaspora, have all instrumentalized sanctions for their own purposes. The government has used sanctions to rally supporters “around the flag”, calling on the diaspora to raise funds to negate their effect. By contrast, opposition activists have campaigned against the 2 percent “diaspora tax” levied by the government, arguing that it may be used for illicit military purposes in breach of the sanctions regime. In this sense, the sanctions have destabilized a core component of the regime’s resource base. However, the failure of the diasporic opposition to organize a joint campaign to persuade host governments to outlaw the collection of the tax has undermined its efforts.  Funds raised through the diaspora tax thus continue to flow into government coffers, playing a stabilizing role in spite of the UN sanctions regime.

Eritrea is one of the world’s most closed economies.  It has no constitution, functioning legislature, independent judiciary, elections, independent press, or non-governmental organizations.  Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia in 1993, and has since been ruled by the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).  All power is concentrated in the hands of the government.  The PFDJ established a policy of “self-reliance” that restricts foreign investment and aid from foreign organizations on the grounds that these have too many conditions and infringe on national sovereignty.

Agriculture has been the cornerstone of the Eritrean economy in the past and is still the main source of income and food for more than 60 percent of the population.  Eritrea has substantial and varied natural resources that can be developed to sustain socioeconomic development.  Generally, Eritrea possesses modest land and water resources.  An estimated 2.1 million ha (17% of the total land area) is arable land suitable for crop and horticultural production.  Of this, only 0.6 million hectare is suitable for irrigation, while 0.5% of the total land area is forest.  The rest is very marginal and barren arid land, at best suitable for browsing and grazing.  Currently, about 520,000 hectares are under rain-fed agriculture, while about 40,000 hectares are under full service irrigation, and about 63,000 hectares are under spate irrigation.

As a way of encouraging private investment, the Eritrean Government is ending all subsidies for state-run enterprises and is divesting its shares from many of these enterprises.  The enterprises being privatized include those that salt, glass, leather, processed foods, cotton, knitwear and sweaters, beverages and liquors.  The Government of Eritrea plans to divest shares in its previously publicly-owned ventures, particularly hotels.  Sales in the past had attracted a lot of private interest.  At the same time, several new factories were opened to produce marble, recycled plastics and rubber goods.  Tourism, formerly a small but growing sector was the subject of a promotional drive launched by the Ministry of Tourism in April 2002.  The main export items are salt, semi-processed leather goods, flowers, livestock and textiles.